The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
The first computers were a far cry from modern devices like the iPhone 6 or Samsung Galaxy S6. The size of a large room and weighing several tonnes, they boasted only a fraction of the power of today's digital watches, and printed information on ticker tape since they lacked screens.
In the early 1980s, the home computing era began, and quickly took the world by storm with several notable machines from Sir Clive Sinclair's team proving that computers could be both affordable, and put to meaningful tasks (and games) in the home.
It wasn't long before computers were a part of every home and office, and they steadily increased in power in line with Moore's law.
Revolution hit again in 2007 when Apple released its first iPhone, with the iPad following just three years later. These devices, and the many similar mobile computers that followed, allowed people to carry powerful machines in their pockets, which has transformed the way we work and play.
Join Computing as it takes a visual look back through the history of the digital age.
Norwich City Council taking delivery of its first ever computer in 1957. Elliott Brothers produced industrial computers throughout the 1950s, and the firm could trace its heritage back to a firm of instrument makers founded by William Elliott in London around 1804.
Next, the Sinclair ZX80
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Skipping forward to 1980, the ZX80 was released by Science of Cambridge Ltd (later to become Sinclair Research). It was available to purchase as a kit for £79.95, which the owner then had to solder together. Alternatively it could be bought pre-assembled for £99.95.
It boasted a Z80 central procesing unit (CPU) with a clock speed of 3.25MHz, 1kB of RAM, and another 4kB of read only memory (ROM).
It reached sales of around 50,000 units, and helped the UK to lead the world in the early years of home computing.
Next, the ZX81
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Just a year after the release of the ZX80, Sinclair Research marketed the ZX81, which was manufactured in Scotland by Timex Corporation. It was a huge commercial success in the both Europe and the US, shipping over 1.5 million units. The home computer era had now officially begun.
The ZX81 could be bought by mail order again either in kit form or pre-assembled, but was revolutionary in that it could also be bought on the high street - a first for home computers.
Like the ZX80, the ZX81 shipped with the 3.25MHz Z80 processor and came with 1kB of on-board memory - however this could be expanded to 16kB with external plug-in hardware.
The ZX81 could be plugged into an ordinary UHF television set to use as a screen, however it was capable of only a monochrome display.
Next, the ZX Spectrum
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
In 1982, hot on the heels of the ZX81, the iconic ZX Spectrum was released by Sinclair Research. Over the machine's lifespan it was released as eight different models, starting with the original 16kB version up to the ZX Spectrum +3 model with 128kB of RAM and an in-built floppy drive.
All models sported a Zilog Z80A CPU running at 3.5MHz.
The ZX Spectrum was the first of the Sinclair range to be able to display in colour, and it led to an explosion of firms offering both software, and hardware peripherals (like printers, drum machines and joysticks) for it. It sold over 5 million units worldwide, and many credit it with kickstarting the UK's technology industry.
It also kickstarted the UK's gaming industry, with many of today's top names in gaming starting out as "bedroom coders" making games by themselves throughout the 80s (including David Braben, co-creator of Elite, and Peter Molyneux, creator of Populous).
Sir Clive Sinclair, the founder of Sinclair Research, earned his knighthood for services to British Industry, and the ZX Spectrum can claim its share of the glory for bringing him that accolade.
Next - the BBC Micro
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
The BBC Micro was designed and built by Acorn Computer for the BBC Computer Literacy Project, after the broadcaster called for bids to produce a computer to accompany its educational TV programmes and literature.
The machine was first released in 1981, but production problems meant that availability was scarce until 1982.
Over 1.5 million BBC Micros were sold, far more than originally anticipated by either Acorn Computer or the BBC, with around 80 per cent of UK schools owning a machine, and many households too, despite its relatively high asking price of £299 for the basic model.
The early Model A version had 16kB of RAM and a 2MHz MOS Technology 6502 CPU.
Next - Commodore 64
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Commodore International released the Commodore 64 in 1982. Various estimates list its total sales as ranging between 12.5 million and 17 million units, and the Guinness Book of Records cites it as the highest selling single computer model of all time.
It was so popular in part because it boasted superior colour graphics and sound compared with the competition. It was also more powerful than contemporaries such as the Sinclair Spectrum 48k, with 64kB of RAM and 20kB of ROM, though its MOS Technology 6510 processor was technically slower, running at 1.023MHz.
Its success can also be attributed to its sales model, since it was available in general retail stores rather than just via mail order, or purely in electronics stores which was more usual at the time. Commodore International's policy of manufacturing as many of its components as possible in-house also helped to keep production costs low, which in turn led to a relatively low asking price of $595 in the US at launch.
Its sales both helped to create and were boosted by a very healthy software ecosystem that developed around the machine, with around 10,000 software titles eventually produced for it.
Next - the Apple IIe
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Apple released its updated desktop rival to the swathe of IBM compatible PCs that dominated the business market at the time, the Apple IIe, in 1983.
The 'e' stands for 'enhanced', and refers to the model's additional features over earlier models, such as a full ASCII keyboard, 64kB of RAM and the inclusion of an expansion slot into which more RAM could be added.
Apple had originally intended to discontinue the Apple II model when it introduced the Apple III in 1980, reasoning that the earlier machine would be obsolete and therefore stop selling. However, the Apple III failed to capture any significant market share from the dominant IBM PC, and so the business decided to update the Apple II.
The Apple IIe remained fairly unchanged throughout its 10-year production life, though Apple did update its motherboard and firmware once each during that period.
Next - the IBM PC
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
IBM released its Personal Computer, or the IBM PC, in August 1981. The term 'personal computer' actually pre-dates IBM's usage, with Xeroc PARC's Alto sporting the name as early as 1972, but it was the vastly more successful IBM PC that brought the name to the masses.
Whilst the machine started life as the IBM model 5150, the PC quickly became a term applied to any computer that was compatible with IBM products. A huge market of third-party peripherals, expansion cards and software quickly boomed around the platform, and the business world would soon adopt it as the machine of choice.
The PC initially seemed to be a poor fit for IBM's business model, which was largely centred around the manufacture and sale of hugely expensive mainframe systems at the time. Before the introduction of the PC, the firm's cheapest computer cost upwards of $15,000 and could only be acquired through its own sales force.
However, despite the firm's inexperience with smaller, cheaper machines, and its lack of a relationship with retailers, the power of its brand won through. Another significant factor in the platform's success was its open standards. By publishing technical information about its new product, IBM made it simple for third parties to develop compatible hardware and software, quickly building a thriving ecosystem around the PC.
Microsoft in particular received a high degree of co-operation from IBM, which helped it to build the operating systems that have largely run the machines since the mid 1980s.
Next - the Apple Macintosh
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Apple's Macintosh range was originally conceived in 1979 by Jef Raskin, the firm's 31st employee and head of documentation and testing at the time. Raskin had decided that the era's computers, even his own firm's Apple II, were overly complicated, and envisioned something more intuitive.
He selected the name 'McIntosh' (after his favourite type of apple) for this new range of machines, but this was considered to be too similar to the name of another firm 'McIntosh Laboratory Inc', and eventually the spelling 'Macintosh' was used.
The original Macintosh boasted 128kB of RAM, and incorporated both the Motorola 6809E and the Motorola 68000 microprocessors, enabling it to support a 384 x 256 pixel display. The graphical power of the machine was important given that one of its main selling points was its bespoke graphical user interface (GUI), setting it apart from IBM PC compatibles.
The device launched in 1984 with a $1.5m Ridley Scott directed television commercial aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII. The ad invoked George Orwell's novel 1984, and attempted to portray Apple's product as a break from conformity.
At launch the Macintosh cost $1,995 (quickly raised to $2,495). It sold 50,000 units by the end of the year.
Next - Amstrad CPC
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
The Amstrad Colour Personal Computer (CPC) is a series of computers produced by Amstrad from 1984 through to 1990. THe first model, the CPC464, competed directly with the Commodore 64 and the Sinclair Spectrum 48k.
It was designed primarily as a home computer, and the majority of its software was games.
Like the Commodore 64, the CPC464 included 64kB of RAM, a Zilog Z80A processor running at 4MHz, and featured a built-in cassette tape deck. It was originally sold in the UK for £249 with a green screen, and £359 with a colour monitor.
Prices were cut by £50 around a year after its release.
Around three million units across the range were sold from its launch in 1984 until the series was discontinued in 1990.
Next - The Atari ST
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Released in June 1985, the Atari ST is the first personal computer to feature a bit-mapped, colour user interface. The second model from the series, the 1040ST, was released in 1986 and holds the record for being the first personal computer to ship with a megabyte of RAM.
The ST was also famed for being the first home computer to feature built-in MIDI, allowing both hobbyists and professional musicians to use it to control various electronic musical instruments.
Furthermore, its relatively fast CPU and high-resolution display made it ideal for some business uses, including CAD.
The machine took the 'ST' part of its name from the phrase 'Sixteen/Thirty-two', which referred to its processor, the Motorola 68000, which had a 16-bit external bus and 32-bit internals.
Next - The Commodore Amiga
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
The first model of the Amiga range, the A1000, was launched in 1985, and was notable for its superior graphical, audio and multi-tasking capabilities compared with the majority of its competition at the time.
Its name 'Amiga' was chosen for being the Spanish word for female friend, and because it appears before 'Apple' in Yellow Pages- style lists of computer manufacturers.
Like its principal competitor the Atari ST, the Amiga used the Motorola 68-000 family of processors. The Amiga differentiated itself however with a bespoke chipset which gave it graphics and sound capabilities that were considerably ahead of its peers.
Commodore originally tried to position the Amiga as a business computer, but it found more success as a home computer. Like other successful ranges, it was supported by a deep ecosystem of third-party software developers, with a huge variety of games and creativity packages available. It was also cheaper than the Apple Macintosh and the various IBM PC compatibles available at the time.
"Amiga500 system" by Bill Bertram - Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amiga500\\_system.jpg#/media/File:Amiga500\\_system.jpg
Next - the laptop
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
The first mass-produced laptop appeared in 1981. Dubbed the Osborne 1, and sporting a five inch CRT monitor, it was large, unwieldy and heavy by modern standards.
However, it was a big hit with businesses, as executives were finally released from their desks, and were able to take their computers and their information with them on the road.
This, and other early laptops such as the Epson PX-4, used the CP/M operating system (created by Gary Kildall of Digital Research for Intel-based machines). However, the Compaq Portable, launched in 1982, ran MS-DOS and was a true IBM compatible device.
IBM itself followed this up with the IBM PC Convertible in 1986. Weighing 13 pounds, it had an LCD display and boasted two floppy disc drives.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, many manufacturers released a huge number of IBM compatible netbooks and laptops, of increasing power and capability, and importantly, with a steadily improving battery life.
"Osborne 1 open" by Bilby - Own work. Licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Osborne\\_1\\_open.jpg#/media/File:Osborne\\_1\\_open.jpg
The first Apple machine designed for portable use was the Macintosh Portable. It won praise for its clear screen, but failed to grab significant market share due to its size and weight.
"Macintosh Portable-IMG 7541" by Rama - Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 fr via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Macintosh\\_Portable-IMG\\_7541.jpg#/media/File:Macintosh\\_Portable-IMG\\_7541.jpg
The real revolutionary moment for Apple came in its 1991 launch of the Powerbook range, which defined what both business users and home consumers would later expect from portable computing, with innovations such as a trackball and palm rest.
Next - the iPhone
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
The world of computing changed forever when Apple released the first iPhone in June 2007.
Running the firm's proprietary iOS mobile operating system, it sports an interface that takes full advantage of the device's multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard.
Although Apple initially barred third parties from producing apps for the device, it relented with the result that today, the App Store offers well over one million programs.
The iPhone revolutionised what consumers expected from their phones, with actual phone calls relegated to a low priority feature when compared with internet browsing, email, digital photography, social networking, map reading, and gaming.
It also revolutionised corporate mobility, with firms quick to grasp the power of enabling employees to send and receive business emails without having to wait for laptops to boot, or to find a wall charger.
Apple's latest entry to the range is the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus, which sport a 1.4GHz 64-bit dual-core Apple A8 processor, and 1GB of RAM.
Next - the Samsung Galaxy
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Samsung's smartphone range launched in June 2010 with the Samsung Galaxy S. Like the iPhone it is touchscreen-enabled, but unlike Apple's product it runs Google's Android operating system.
Hugely popular, it sold over 24 million units. Its popularity is as much down to its low cost relative to the iPhone, as its power and functionality.
The latest smartphone in the range is the Samsung Galaxy S6 (pictured), which was released in April 2015. It sports a high resolution 1440p display, an Exynos 7420 Octa-core 2.1 GHz processor, a separate graphics processing unit and 3GB of RAM, making it comparable specifications-wise to a low end laptop.
It runs the Android 5.0.2 'Lollipop' operating system.
Next - tablets
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
Apple released the first iPad in April 2010. Like the iPhone its functionality revolves around its multi-point touchscreen including a virtual keyboard.
It proved immediately popular with both consumers and professionals.
Consumers appreciated its ease of use, instant on and instant off (thanks to its embedded solid state memory) capabilities, and the intuitive way the touch screen could be employed in web browsing. The abundance of games and other apps on Apple's App Store further drove sales.
Professionals appreciated the ability to quickly access emails between meetings, or whilst on the move, and the device has also been rolled out in many enterprises globally.
The latest models in the range - the iPad Air 2 (pictured) and the iPad Mini 3 were released in October 2014.
The Surface was Microsoft's first foray into the world of hybrid computing - a device with a detachable keyboard which can function as a tablet or laptop.
It was split into two ranges. The 'Surface Pro' ran a fully-featured version of Windows 8 (later upgraded to Windows 8.1), and was able to run most compatible software, including mainstream productivity suites like Microsoft Office.
The Surface RT range was cheaper, less powerful, and could run only software downloaded from Microsoft's proprietary app store, which was significantly under populated compared to its peers operated by Apple and Google.
Despite initial poor sales compared to some of its rivals, the Surface Pro has found a niche with large enterprises, who appreciate its power, compact size and innovations like the 'stylus', a pen designed for the device's touch screen.
The latest device in the range is the Surface Pro 3 (pictured), released in June 2014.
Next - the Future
The home computing era: from the ZX80 to the iPhone 7
Personal computing has come a long way since home-assembly kits were sold in the early 80s. Computing takes a trip down (random access) memory lane
So those are the home and professional computing devices of the past 30 years, but what will the devices of the future look like?
In the immediate future, Apple is likely to release the next iteration of the iPhone in autumn 2015, which could be either the iPhone 6s or iPhone 7. It's not expected to be a revolution, but could be slightly thinner, and sport a higher resolution screen and enhanced camera which the firm is likely to claim will rival D-SLR cameras.
Future generation smartphones will boast improved AI and voice recognition, with services like Siri and Cortana better able to interact and converse with users. This will be useful for productivity purposes, but many will also find themselves holding relatively fulfilling conversations with their devices.
Looking further ahead, smartphones and tablets are likely to be fitted with curved, edge-to-edge and flexible screens, able to be rolled and twisted into more comfortable form factors for slipping into pockets. They are also likely to be made 3-D capable within five years, though this functionality will sit better with next-generation wearables.
On the wearable front, they are likely to split into two camps - wrist-borne devices like the Apple Watch, and head-mounted devices like the Oculus Rift. Eventually, head-mounted devices will become smaller and less obtrusive, at which point we can expect them to start to replace other devices.
Wearables will themselves be supplanted eventually by implanted devices, which will more directly interface with the human brain, turning us all into the cyborgs that have for so long existed in the realms of science fiction.
Are you fuming at the omission of the Oric Atmos? Spitting feathers that the Acorn Archimedes was cruelly overlooked? Let us know what else we should have included and why in the comments below!